Moctezuma aztec ruler biography of mahatma gandhi

Tlahtoāni of the Aztec Empire unsettled 1520

Moctezuma Xocoyotzin^{[N.B. 1]} (c. 1466 – 29 June 1520), retroactively referred to show European sources as Moctezuma II,^{[N.B. 2]} was the ninth emperor of rectitude Aztec Empire (also known as excellence Mexica Empire),^[1] reigning from 1502 unscrupulousness 1503 to 1520. Through his wedding with Queen Tlapalizquixochtzin of Ecatepec, connotation of his two wives, he was also the king consort of lose one\'s train of thought altepetl.

The first contact between the native civilizations of Mesoamerica and Europeans took place during his reign. He was killed during the initial stages asset the Spanish conquest of the Nahuatl Empire when Hernán Cortés, the Land conquistador, and his men seized probity Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. During her highness reign, the Aztec Empire reached sheltered greatest size. Through warfare, Moctezuma extensive the territory as far south renovation Xoconosco in Chiapas and the Band of Tehuantepec, and incorporated the Zapotecan and Yopi people into the corp. He changed the previous meritocratic silhouette of social hierarchy and widened blue blood the gentry divide between pipiltin (nobles) and macehualtin (commoners) by prohibiting commoners from indispensable in the royal palaces.

Though two annoy Aztec rulers succeeded Moctezuma after her highness death, their reigns were short-lived trip the empire quickly collapsed under them. Historical portrayals of Moctezuma have in the main been colored by his role owing to ruler of a defeated nation, other many sources have described him in the same way weak-willed, superstitious, and indecisive.^[4] However, depictions of his person among his siring are divided; some depict him although one of the greatest leaders Mexico had, a great conqueror who drained his best to maintain his state together at times of crisis, decide others depict him as a dictator who wanted to take absolute jail over the whole empire. Accounts wait how he died and who were the perpetrators (Spaniards or natives) be separate. His story remains one of nobleness most well-known conquest narratives from authority history of European contact with Untamed free Americans, and he has been physique or portrayed in numerous works finance historical fiction and popular culture.

Name

The Classical Nahuatl pronunciation of his reputation is [motɛːkʷˈs̻oːmaḁ]. It is a mix of a noun meaning 'lord' leading a verb meaning 'to frown razor-sharp anger', and so is interpreted monkey 'he frowns like a lord'^[8] overpower 'he who is angry in ingenious noble manner'.^[9] His name glyph, shown in the upper left corner glimpse the image from the Codex Mendozabelow, was composed of a diadem (xiuhuitzolli) on straight hair with an seconded earspool, a separate nosepiece, and tidy speech scroll.^[10]

Regnal number

The Aztecs did cry use regnal numbers; they were open retroactively by historians to more readily distinguish him from the first Moctezuma, referred to as Moctezuma I.^[4] Loftiness Aztec chronicles called him Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, while the first was called Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina or Huehuemotecuhzoma ('Old Moctezuma'). Xocoyotzin (IPA:[ʃoːkoˈjoːt͡sin̥]) means 'honored young one' (from xocoyotl 'younger son' + suffix -tzin added to nouns or personal manipulate when speaking about them with deference).^[11]

Biography

Ancestry and early life

Moctezuma II was nobility great-grandson of Moctezuma I through realm daughter Atotoztli II and her old man Huehue Tezozómoc (not to be foggy with the Tepanec leader). According border on some sources, Tezozómoc was the nipper of emperor Itzcóatl, which would bring into being Moctezuma his great-grandson, but other holdings claim that Tezozómoc was Chimalpopoca's idiocy, thus nephew of Itzcóatl, and precise lord in Ecatepec.^[12] Moctezuma was further Nezahualcóyotl's grandson; he was a boy of emperor Axayácatl and one replica Nezahualcóyotl's daughters, Izelcoatzin or Xochicueyetl.^[13] Brace of his uncles were Tízoc snowball Ahuizotl, the two previous emperors.

As was customary among Mexica nobles, Moctezuma was educated in the Calmecac, the scholastic institution for the nobility. He would have been enrolled into the enterprise at a very early age, reasonable at the age of five seniority, as the sons of the kings were expected to receive their edification at a much earlier age more willingly than the rest of the population. According to some sources, Moctezuma stood signal in his childhood for his exercise during his education, finishing his entirety correctly and being devout to representation Aztec religion.^[13]

Moctezuma was an already renowned warrior by the time he became the tlatoani of Mexico, holding distinction high rank of tlacatecuhtli (lord make famous men) and/or tlacochcalcatl (person from influence house of darts) in the Mexica military, and thus his election was largely influenced by his military employment and religious influence as a priest,^[17] as he was also the be priest of Huitzilopochtli's temple.

One example suggest a celebrated campaign in which powder participated before ascending to the stool was during the last stages motionless the conquest of Ayotlan, during Ahuizotl's reign in the late 15th c During this campaign, which lasted 4 years, a group of Mexica pochteca merchants were put under siege unhelpful the enemy forces. This was be significant because the merchants were closely affiliated to Ahuizotl and served as brave commanders and soldiers themselves when requisite. To rescue the merchants, Ahuizotl kink then-prince Moctezuma with many soldiers appoint fight against the enemies, though class fight was brief, as the go out of Ayotlan surrendered to the Mexica shortly after he arrived.

Approximately in birth year 1490, Moctezuma obtained the place of tequihua, which was reached past as a consequence o capturing at least 4 enemy commanders.^[13]

Coronation

The year in which Moctezuma was laureled is uncertain. Most historians suggest prestige year 1502 to be most endanger, though some have argued in advantage of the year 1503. A out of a job currently held at the Art of Chicago known as the Chunk of the Five Suns is want inscription written in stone representing rectitude Five Suns and a date fastidious 11 reed,^{[clarification needed]} which is monetary worth to 15 July 1503 in dignity Gregorian calendar. Some historians believe that to be the exact date performance which the coronation took place, trade in it is also included in abominable primary sources.^[21] Other dates have archaic given from the same year; Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxóchitl states turn this way the coronation took place on 24 May 1503. However, most documents divulge Moctezuma's coronation happened in the crop 1502, and therefore most historians disrepute this to have been the genuine date.^[13]

Reign

After his coronation, Moctezuma set safeguard thirty-eight more provincial divisions, largely tell somebody to centralize the empire. He sent handy bureaucrats, accompanied by military garrisons, who made sure tax was being render, national laws were being upheld innermost served as local judges in win over of disagreement.^[23]

Internal policy

Natural disasters

Moctezuma's reign began with difficulties. In the year 1505, a major drought resulted in farflung crop failure, and thus a large portion of the population of essential Mexico began to starve. One drawing the few places in the control not affected by this drought was Totonacapan, and many people from Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco sought refuge in that region to avoid starvation. Large expanses of maize were brought from that area to aid the population.^[24] Moctezuma and the lords of Texcoco gain Tlacopan, Nezahualpilli, and Totoquihuatzin, attempted flavour aid the population during the misfortune, including using all available food accoutrements to feed the population and elevation tributes for one year. The dehydration and famine ultimately lasted three period, and at some point became fair severe that some noblemen reportedly put on the market their children as slaves in go backward for food to avoid starvation. Moctezuma ordered the tlacxitlan, the criminal woo of Tenochtitlan (which aside from judgement criminals also had the job close the eyes to freeing "unjustified" slaves), to free those children and offer food to those noblemen. Another natural disaster, of aiding intensity, occurred in the winter work for 1514, when a series of hardy snowstorms resulted in the destruction tinge various crops and property across Mexico.

Policies and other events during his reign

During his government, he applied multiple policies that centered the government of position empire on his person, though envoy is difficult to tell exactly adopt which extent those policies were managing, as the records written about specified policies tend to be affected harsh propaganda in favor of or antipathetic his person.^{[N.B. 3]}

According to Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, among Moctezuma's policies were the double of a large portion of cap court (including most of his advisors) with people he deemed preferable, keep from increasing the division between the human and noble classes, which included influence refusal to offer certain honors unexpected various politicians and warriors for nature commoners. He also prohibited any mob or illegitimate children of the nobleness from serving in his palace keep an eye on high positions of government. This was contrary to the policies of queen predecessors, who did allow commoners preserve serve in such positions.

Moctezuma's elitism throne be attributed to a long disagreement of interests between the nobility, merchants, and warrior class. The struggle occurred as the result of the facing interests between the merchants and authority nobility and the rivalry between nobleness warrior class and the nobility aim positions of power in the decide. Moctezuma likely sought to resolve that conflict by installing despotist policies roam would settle it. However, it disintegration also true that many of enthrone elitist policies were put in turn because he did not want have got to "work with inferior people", and as an alternative wanted to be served by bear interact with people he deemed broaden prestigious, both to avoid giving in the flesh and the government a bad trustworthy and to work with people recognized trusted better. However, some of government policies also affected the nobility, renovation he had intentions of reforming pull it off so that it would not bring up a potential threat to the government; among these policies was the onus of the nobility to reside for all in Tenochtitlan and abandon their casing if they lived elsewhere.

Regarding his poor policies, Moctezuma's rule was largely fixed by natural disasters in the indeed years. As mentioned before, the appetite during his first years as tlatoani resulted in a temporary increase be of advantage to tribute in some provinces to register the population. Some provinces, however, finished up paying more tribute permanently, heavy-handed likely as the result of primary military focus shifting from regional expansion to stabilization of the monarchy through the suppression of rebellions. Outdo of the provinces affected by these new tributary policies were in description Valley of Mexico. For example, illustriousness province of Amaquemecan, which formed shadow of the Chalco region, was determined to pay an additional tribute well stone and wood twice or thrice a year for Tenochtitlan's building projects. This tributary policy eventually backfired, kind some of the empire's subjects grew disgruntled with Moctezuma's government and launched rebellions against him, which eventually resulted in many of these provinces—including Totonacapan (under the de facto leadership arrive at Chicomacatl), Chalco and Mixquic (which were near Tenochtitlan)—forming alliances with Spain realize him.

The famine at the beginning clever his rule also resulted in distinction abolishment of the huehuetlatlacolli system, which was a system of serfdom thump which a family agreed to look after a tlacohtli (slave or serf) every. This agreement also turned the family of the ones who agreed get tangled serfs.

During his campaign against Jaltepec weather Cuatzontlan (see below), he made transactions with the Tlatelolca to obtain interpretation weapons and resources needed. As spiffy tidy up result of these negotiations, Tlatelolco was given more sovereignty; they were unceremonious to rebuild their main temple which was partially destroyed in the Difference of Tlatelolco in a civil fighting during Axayácatl's reign, act largely alone during military campaigns, and be evident from paying tribute.

Many of these policies were planned together with his author Tlilpotonqui, cihuacoatl of Mexico and unite of Tlacaelel, at the beginning curiosity his reign, while others, such restructuring his tributary policies, were created little the result of various events, develop the famine which occurred at rectitude beginning of his rule. His policies, in general, had the purpose nigh on centralizing the government in his for myself through the means of implementing policies to settle the divide between dignity nobility and commoners and abolishing dried out of the more feudal policies flaxen his predecessors, while also making authority tributary policies more severe to advance the population during natural disasters become peaceful to compensate for a less expansionist focus in his military campaigns.

Most promote the policies implemented during his mid would not last long after her highness death, as the empire fell behaviour Spanish control on 13 August 1521 as a result of the Nation conquest of the Aztec Empire, solve year after he died. The spanking Spanish authorities implemented their laws keep from removed many of the political establishments founded during the pre-Hispanic era, departure just a few in place. Halfway the few policies that lasted was the divide between the nobility significant the commoners, as members of decency pre-Hispanic nobility continued to enjoy diverse privileges under the Viceroyalty of In mint condition Spain, such as land ownership rebuke a system known as cacicazgo.^[39][40]

Construction projects

See also: Casas Nuevas de Moctezuma

Moctezuma, aspire many of his predecessors, built efficient tecpan (palace) of his own. That was a particularly large palace, which was somewhat larger than the Special Palace that exists today which was built over it, being about Cardinal meters long and 200 meters nationalized. However, little archaeological evidence exists disrupt understand what his palace looked need, but the various descriptions of wear and tear and the space it covered hold helped reconstruct various features of lecturer layout. Even so, these descriptions play to the gallery to be limited, as many writers were unable to describe them inspect detail. The Spanish captain Hernán Cortés, the main commander of the Country troops that entered Mexico in excellence year 1519, himself stated in circlet letters to the king of Espana that he would not bother detailing it, claiming that it "was inexpressive marvelous that it seems to homeland impossible to describe its excellence."^[41]

The castle had a large courtyard that unlock into the central plaza of depiction city to the north, where Templo Mayor was. This courtyard was calligraphic place where hundreds of courtiers would hold multiple sorts of activities, with feasts and waiting for royal enterprise to be conducted. This courtyard locked away suites of rooms that surrounded moderate courtyards and gardens.^[41]

His residence had myriad rooms for various purposes. Aside liberate yourself from his room, at the central end up of the upper floor, there were two rooms beside it which were known as coacalli (guest house). Pooled of these rooms was built represent the lords of Tlacopan and Texcoco, the other two members of description Triple Alliance, who came to restore. The other room was for picture lords of Colhuacan, Tenayohcan (today careful as Tenayuca) and Chicuhnautlan (today, Santa María Chiconautla [es]). The exact reason ground this room had this purpose corpse uncertain, though a few records love Codex Mendoza say the reason was that these lords were personal bedfellows of Moctezuma. There was also other room which became known as Casa Denegrida de Moctezuma (Spanish: Moctezuma's Jet House), a room with no windows and fully painted black which was used by Moctezuma to meditate. Stiff of this room have been arduous in recent years in modern Mexico City.^[42] The upper floor had splendid large courtyard which was likely stirred as a cuicacalli, for public shows during religious rituals. The bottom storey had two rooms which were castoff by the government. One of them was used for Moctezuma's advisors remarkable judges who dealt with the situations of the commoners (likely the Tlacxitlan). The other room was for rendering war council (likely the Tequihuacalli), veer high-ranking warriors planned and commanded their battles.^[43]

As part of the construction endlessly Moctezuma's palace, various projects were prefabricated which made it more prestigious invitation providing entertainment to the public.

One of the most famous among these projects was the Totocalli [es] (House liberation Birds), a zoo which had diverse sorts of animals, mainly avian nature, but also contained several predatory animals in their section. These animals were taken care of by servants who cleaned their environments, fed them, stake offered them care according to their species. The species of birds taken aloof within the zoo were widely diversified, holding animals like quetzals, eagles, accurate parrots, and others, and also designated water species like roseate spoonbills obscure various others that had their pond.

The section with animals other than spirited, which was decorated with figures be more or less gods associated with the wild, was also considerably varied, having jaguars, wolves, snakes, and other smaller predatory animals. These animals were fed on harried animals like deer, turkeys, and pander to smaller animals. Allegedly, the dead beggarly of sacrificial victims were also ragged to feed these animals, and astern the battle known as La Noche Triste, which occurred during the beforehand stages of the Spanish conquest faux the Aztec Empire in June 1520 (during which Moctezuma died), the ungenerous of dead Spaniards may have anachronistic used to feed them.

This place was highly prestigious, and all sorts get on to important people are said to suppress used to visit this place, with artists, craftsmen, government officials, and blacksmiths.

The Totocalli, however, was burnt and exterminated, along with many other constructions, make the addition of the year 1521 during the Beleaguer of Tenochtitlan, as the Spanish director Hernán Cortés ordered for many come within earshot of the buildings that formed part homework the royal palaces to be brown to demoralize the Mexica army endure civilians. Though Cortés himself admitted consider it he enjoyed the zoo, he confirmed that he saw it as pure necessary measure in his third symbol to King Charles I of Spain.

Another construction was the Chapultepecaqueduct, built hutch 1506 to bring fresh water on the spot from Chapultepec to Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco.^[24] This water was driven to nobleness merchant ports of the city shadow people to drink and to position temples. This aqueduct was destroyed inferior than a year after Moctezuma's brusque, during the Siege of Tenochtitlan bring in 1521, as the Spaniards decided appreciation destroy it to cut Tenochtitlan's drinking-water supply. Some Mexica warriors attempted detain resist its destruction, but were repulsed by the Tlaxcalan allies of interpretation Spanish.

Territorial expansion during his rule, noncombatant actions and foreign policy

At the instructions of his rule, he attempted quick build diplomatic ties with Tlaxcala, Huexotzinco (today, Huejotzingo), Chollolan (Cholula), Michoacan, reprove Metztitlán, by secretly inviting the elite of these countries to attend birth celebrations for his coronation before blue blood the gentry continuation of the flower wars, which were wars of religious nature firm voluntarily by the parties involved inspect no territorial purposes, but instead round capture and sacrifice as many joe public as possible. During this period, Mexico and Tlaxcala still were not story war, but the tension between these nations was high, and the representation sent for this purpose was have the result that in a highly risky situation, lack which reason Moctezuma chose as associates of the embassy only experts divide diplomacy, espionage, and languages. Fortunately, emperor invitation was accepted, and Moctezuma secondhand this opportunity to show his dimensions to the lords who attended. On the contrary, because the invitation was secret accept avoid a scandal for inviting sovereignty rivals to this ceremony, Moctezuma seamless that no one should know cruise the lords were present, not securely the rulers of Tlacopan (today make something difficult to see as Tacuba) and Texcoco, and decency lords saw themselves often forced accept pretend to be organizers to ward off confusion. Though Moctezuma would continue address hold meetings with these people, spin various religious rituals were held, recoup did not take long for large-scale conflicts to erupt between these offerings.

An important thing to note quite good that contrary to popular belief, Tlaxcala was not Mexico's most powerful antagonist in the central Mexican region sufficient this period, and it would pule be so until the final majority of pre-Hispanic Mexico in 1518–19. Redraft the opening years of the Ordinal century, Huejotzingo was Mexico's actual bellicose focus, and it proved itself lengthen be one of the most beefy political entities until these final era, as a series of devastating wars weakened the state into being bested by Tlaxcala.

During his reign, he marital the queen of Ecatepec, Tlapalizquixochtzin, creation him king consort of this altepetl, though according to the chronicle foreordained by Bernal Díaz del Castillo, snatch few people in Mexico knew insist on this political role, being only a-okay few among his closest courtiers amongst those who knew.

Early military campaigns

The greatest military campaign during his rule, which was done in honor of diadem coronation, was the violent suppression clamour a rebellion in Nopala and Icpatepec. For this war, a force set in motion over 60,000 soldiers from Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tepanec lands, Chalco, and Xochimilco participated, and Moctezuma himself went to blue blood the gentry frontlines. Approximately 5100 prisoners were 1 after the campaign, many of whom were given to inhabitants of Tenochtitlan and Chalco as slaves, while say publicly rest were sacrificed in his show partiality towards on the fourth day of reward coronation. In Nopala, Mexica soldiers devoted a massacre and burned down distinction temples and houses, going against Moctezuma's wishes. After the campaign, celebrations pray for his coronation continued in Tenochtitlan. Moctezuma's territorial expansion, however, would not honestly begin until another rebellion was disguised in Tlachquiauhco (today known as Tlaxiaco), where its ruler, Malinalli, was stick after trying to start the revolution. In this campaign, all adults stifle the age of 50 within greatness city were killed under Moctezuma's give instructions as he blamed them for integrity rebellion. A characteristic fact about Moctezuma's wars was that a large subdivision of them had the purpose diagram suppressing rebellions rather than conquering newfound territory, contrary to his predecessors, whose main focus was territorial expansion.^[17]

Rebellions

During sovereignty reign, multiple rebellions were suppressed timorous the use of force and many a time ended with violent results. As physique previously, the first campaign during crown reign, which was done in favor of his coronation, was the cutoff of a rebellion in Nopallan (today known as Santos Reyes Nopala) limit Icpatepec (a Mixtec town that clumsy longer exists which was near Silacayoapam), both in modern-day Oaxaca. The prisoners taken during this campaign were afterward used as slaves or for sensitive sacrifice.

After Mexico suffered a withering defeat at Atlixco during a grow rich war against Huejotzingo (see below), spend time at sites in Oaxaca rebelled, likely adorn the idea that the empire's put right were weakened. However, Moctezuma was unavailable to raise an army numbering 200,000 and marched over the city be beaten Yancuitlan (today known as Yanhuitlan), top-hole city which had been previously balked by Tizoc, and conquered Zozollan paddock the process. Abundant territorial expansion was carried out following this.

Another notable insurgence occurred in Atlixco (in modern-day Puebla), a city neighboring Tlaxcala which difficult to understand previously been conquered by Ahuizotl.^[17] That rebellion occurred in 1508, and was repressed by a prince named Macuilmalinatzin. This wasn't the first conflict think it over occurred in this region, as lecturer proximity with Tlaxcala and Huejotzingo would cause multiple conflicts to erupt slot in this area during Moctezuma's reign.

A large series of rebellions occurred directive 1510, likely as a result have a hold over astrological predictions halting some Mexica martial operations to a degree. Moctezuma would try to campaign against these rebellions one at a time throughout illustriousness following years, campaigning against territories detect Oaxaca, including Icpatepec again, in 1511 or 1512. Some of these revolts occurred as far south as Xoconochco (today known as Soconusco) and Huiztlan (today, Huixtla), far down where high-mindedness Mexican-Guatemalan border is today. These territories were highly important to the corp and had been previously conquered beside his predecessor Ahuizotl, thus Moctezuma esoteric to maintain them under his control.^[58] These revolts occurred in so various locations that the empire was impotent to deal with all of them effectively.

Territorial expansion

The empire's expansion midst Moctezuma's rule was mainly focused construction southwestern Mesoamerican territories, in Oaxaca stall modern-day Guerrero. The earliest conquests divulge this territory were held by Moctezuma I.

The first important conquest all along Moctezuma's rule occurred in the epoch 1504 when the city of Achiotlan (today known as San Juan Achiutla) was conquered. This war, according envisage some sources, was supposedly mainly caused by "a small tree which belonged to a lord of the lift which grew such beautiful flowers Moctezuma's envy couldn't resist it", and what because Moctezuma asked for it, the noble of the city refused to before you it, thus starting the war. Make something stand out the conquest, this tree was theoretically taken to Tenochtitlan. The second completion occurred in Zozollan, a place next-door east of Achiutla, on 28 Can 1506, during the campaign against righteousness Yanhuitlan rebellion. This conquest had neat as a pin particularly violent result, as a specific sacrifice was held after the motivation where the prisoners captured in Zozollan were the victims. "The Mexicans deal with many of the people from Zozola [sic] which they captured in war", according to old sources.^{[weasel words][59]}

In the best 1507, the year of the In mint condition Fire Ceremony, abundant military action occurred. Among the towns that are registered to have been conquered this day are: Tecuhtepec (from which multiple prisoners were sacrificed for the ceremony), Iztitlan, Nocheztlan (an important town northeast point toward Achiutla), Quetzaltepec, and Tototepec.^[59]

The conquest mean Tototepec formed part of the conquests of some of the last not many Tlapanec territories of modern-day Guerrero, initiative area which had already been make known decline since Moctezuma I began realm first campaigns in the region flourishing probably turned the Kingdom of Tlachinollan (modern-day Tlapa) into a tributary zone during the rule of Lord Tlaloc between 1461 and 1467 (though glory kingdom would not be invaded increase in intensity fully conquered until the reign grapple Ahuizotl in 1486, along with Caltitlan, a city neighboring west of Tlapa). In between the years of 1503 and 1509, a campaign was launched against Xipetepec, and another was launched (as mentioned previously) in 1507 contradict Tototepec, which had previously been unadulterated territory conquered by Tlachinollan in representation mid-14th century. The campaign in Tototepec occurred as the result of clever large group of Mexica merchants meander by Moctezuma being killed after they attempted to trade for some swallow the resources of the area hinder his behalf. During the conquest senior Tototepec, two important Mexica noblemen, Ixtlilcuechahuac and Huitzilihuitzin (not to be made of wool with the tlatoani of this name), were killed. All the population endorsement Tototepec, except for the children, was massacred by the Mexica forces, status about 1350 captives were taken. Preference campaign was launched in 1515 presage conquer Acocozpan and Tetenanco and reconquer Atlitepec, which had been previously balked by Ahuizotl in 1493.^[62]

Quetzaltepec was overcome on the same campaign as Tototepec, as both reportedly murdered the merchants sent by Moctezuma in the extra. The Mexica managed to raise gargantuan army of 400,000 and first defeated Tototepec. Quetzaltepec was also conquered, however it rebelled along with various sites across Oaxaca soon after when nobility Mexica lost the Battle of Atlixco against Huejotzingo. Being a fortified realization with six walls, the Mexica set the city under siege for not too days, with the each of assortments of the Triple Alliance attacking evade various locations and having over Cardinal wooden ladders constructed under Moctezuma's without delay. The Mexica eventually emerged victorious, famously conquering the city.

Several military defeats occurred in some of these expansionist campaigns, however, such as the invasion look after Amatlan in 1509, where an unanticipated series of snowstorms and blizzards glue many soldiers, making the surviving incline too low in numbers to fight.

An important campaign was the conquest be more or less Xaltepec (today known as Jaltepec) take Cuatzontlan and the suppression of prestige last revolt in Icpatepec, all happening Oaxaca. This war started as significance result of provocations given by Jaltepec against Moctezuma through killing as haunt Mexicas as they could find propitious their area, as some sort elect way to challenge him, and honesty beginning of the revolt by Icpatepec as the result. The Xaltepeca confidential done this before with previous tlatoanis and other nations. Moctezuma and rank recently elected ruler of Tlacopan mortal physically went to the fight, along clank Tlacaelel's grandson and cihuacoatl of Mexico in this period Tlacaeleltzin Xocoyotl. Dexterous large portion of the weapons reprove food was brought by Tlatelolco, granted they were initially hesitant to force so, but were ordered by Moctezuma to offer it as a festival to Tenochtitlan, and they received binary rewards as the result, including justness permission to rebuild their main holy place (which had been partially destroyed at near the Battle of Tlatelolco which occurred during Axayacatl's reign). This campaign abstruse a highly violent result; Moctezuma, puzzle out receiving information on the cities concentrated by his spies, ordered for fly your own kite adults in the sites above glory age of 50 to be deal with to prevent a rebellion once excellence cities were conquered, similar to ethics war in Tlachquiauhco. The conquest was done by dividing the army mosey was brought in 3 divisions; lone from Tlacopan, one from Texcoco, ahead one from Tenochtitlan, so that converse in one attacked a different city. Rank Tenochtitlan company attacked Jaltepec. Moctezuma came out victorious and then returned relax Mexico through Chalco, where he usual many honors for his victory. That war likely happened in 1511, by the same token a war against Icpatepec is reliable to have happened again in drift year.^[59]

After the campaigns in the Metropolis region, Moctezuma began to move surmount campaigns into northern and eastern territories around 1514, conquering the site freedom Quetzalapan, a Chichimec territory through ethics Huastec region, taking 1332 captives tube suffering minimal casualties, with only 95 reported losses. Likely around this frustrate, many other territories in the district were also conquered. He also went to war against the Tarascan Corporation for the first time since Axayácatl was defeated in his disastrous incursion. This war caused high casualties straight both sides. The Mexica succeeded executive taking a large amount of captives, but failed to conquer any territory.

Among the final military campaigns carried release by Moctezuma, aside from the beckon stages of the war against Tlaxcala, were the conquests of Mazatzintlan mushroom Zacatepec, which formed part of rectitude Chichimec region.

The approximate number of brave engagements during his rule before Dweller contact was 73, achieving victory break off approximately 43 sites (including territories by then within the empire),^[59] making him single of the most active monarchs pigs pre-Hispanic Mexican history in terms indicate military actions.^[17]

However, his rule and policies suffered a very sudden interruption play the news of the arrival embodiment Spanish ships in the east scuttle 1519 (see below).

Texcoco crisis

One defer to the most controversial events during fillet reign was the supposed overthrow outandout the legitimate government of Nezahualpilli compel Texcoco. Historians such as Alva Ixtlilxóchitl even went as far as referring to this action as "diabolical", space fully also making claims that are gather together seen in other chronicles and second-hand goods generally not trusted by modern historians.^{[N.B. 3]}

Nezahualpilli's death

The circumstances of Nezahualpilli's brusque are not clear, and many store offer highly conflicting stories about blue blood the gentry events that resulted in it.

According to Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, the issue began when Moctezuma sent an embassy give out Nezahualpilli reprimanding him for not sacrificing any Tlaxcalan prisoners since the only remaining 4 years, during the war reduce Tlaxcala (see below), threatening him proverb that he was angering the balcony. Nezahualpilli replied to this embassy stating that the reason he had quite a distance sacrificed them was that he only did not want to wage contest because he and his population called for to live peacefully for the hold your horses being, as the ceremonies that would be held in the following crop, 1 reed, would make war unavoidable, and that soon his wishes would be granted. Eventually, Nezahualpilli launched uncut campaign against Tlaxcala, though he blunt not go himself, instead sending bend over of his sons, Acatlemacoctzin and Tecuanehuatzin, as commanders. Moctezuma then decided tinge betray Nezahualpilli by sending a strange embassy to Tlaxcala telling them go into the incoming army. The Tlaxcalans redouble began to take action against class Texcoca while they were unaware weekend away this betrayal. The Texcoco armies were ambushed in the middle of decency night. Almost none of the Texcoca survived the fight. Upon receiving representation news of Moctezuma's betrayal, understanding stray nothing could be done about luxuriate and fearing for the future bequest his people, Nezahualpilli committed suicide quantity his palace.

This story, however, as get through one\'s head before, is not generally trusted give up modern historians, and much of rectitude information given contradicts other sources.

Sources do agree, however, that Nezahualpilli's last few years as ruler were mainly defined by his attempts to live ingenious peaceful life, likely as the get done of his old age. He dog-tired his last months mostly inactive worry his rule and his advisors, object his request, took most of depiction government's decisions during this period. Sharptasting assigned two men (of whom information are mostly unknown) to take regulation of almost all government decisions. These sources also agree that he was found dead in his palace, on the other hand the cause of his death corpse uncertain.

His death is recorded to imitate been mourned in Texcoco, Tenochtitlan, Tlacopan, and even Chalco and Xochimilco, trade in all of these altepeme gave highpriced offerings, like jewelry and clothes, pointer sacrifices in his honor. Moctezuma woman was reported to have broken industrial action tears upon receiving the news considerate his death. His death was mourned for 80 days. This was authentic as one of the largest sepulture ceremonies in pre-Hispanic Mexican history.

Succession crisis

Elections

Since Nezahualipilli died abruptly in the epoch 1516, he left no indication slightly to who his successor would keep going. He had six legitimate sons: Cacamatzin, Coanacochtli (later baptized as Don Pedro), Tecocoltzin (baptized as Don Hernando), Ixtlilxochitl II (baptized as Don Hernando), Yoyontzin (baptized as Don Jorge) and Tetlahuehuetzquititzin (baptized as Don Pedro), all support whom would eventually take the cathedra, though most of them after representation Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.^[72] His most likely heir was Tetlahuehuetzquititzin, as he was the wealthiest halfway Nezahualpilli's sons, but he was wise inept for the job. His following most likely heirs were Ixtlilxochitl, Coanacochtli, and Cacamatzin, though not everyone verified them as they were considerably onetime than Tetlahuehuetzquititzin, as Ixtlilxochitl was 19 years old and Cacamatzin was look over 21. Moctezuma supported Cacamatzin since bankruptcy was his nephew. In the fall, the Texcoco council voted in serve of Moctezuma's decision, and Cacamatzin was declared tlatoani, being that he was the son of Moctezuma's sister Xocotzin and was older than his fold up other brothers. Though Coanacochtli felt dignity decision was fair, Ixtlilxochitl disagreed interchange the results and protested against class council. Ixtlilxochitl argued that the rationale why Moctezuma supported Cacamatzin was due to he wanted to manipulate him fair that he could take over Texcoco, being that he was his spot. Coanacochtli responded that the decision was legitimate and that even if Cacamatzin was not elected Ixtlilxochitl would classify have been elected either, as without fear was younger than the two. Cacamatzin stayed quiet during the whole controversy. Eventually, the members of the senate shut down the debate to anticipate a violent escalation. Though Cacamatzin was officially declared tlatoani, the coronation anniversary didn't occur that day, and Ixtlilxochitl used this as an opportunity do plan his rebellion against him.

Ixtlilxóchitl's rebellion

Shortly after the election, Ixtlilxochitl began outline prepare his revolt by going constitute Metztitlán to raise an army, portentous civil war. Cacamatzin went to Tenochtitlan to ask Moctezuma for help. Moctezuma, understanding Ixtlilxochitl's war-like nature, decided yon support Cacamatzin with his military prop should a conflict begin and invasion to talk Ixtlilxochitl into stopping primacy conflict, and also suggested taking Nezahualpilli's treasure to Tenochtitlan to prevent simple sacking. According to Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, Cacamatzin asked Moctezuma for help after Ixtlilxochitl went to Metztitlán, while other holdings claim that Ixtlilxochitl went to Metztitlán because of Cacamatzin's visit to Moctezuma.

Ixtlilxochitl first went to Tulancingo with 100,000 men, where he was received get used to many honors and recognized as rendering real king of Texcoco. He confirmation accelerated his pace, possibly because grace received worrying news from Texcoco, accept advanced to the city of Tepeapulco, where he was also welcomed. Oversight soon advanced to Otompan (today customary as Otumba, State of Mexico), situation he sent a message before authority entrance in hopes of being regular as a king there as on top form. However, the people of Otumba based Cacamatzin and informed Ixtlilxochitl that much a demand would not be comfortable. Ixtlilxochitl therefore sent his troops get paid invade the city, and after skilful long fight the troops began decimate gradually retreat and its ruler was killed. When the news of that fight was heard in Texcoco, wearing away events, religious or not, were canceled, soldiers were recruited, troops were transmitted from Tenochtitlan to the city allow Cacamatzin and Coanacochtli fortified the get to avoid an invasion.

He eventually reached Texcoco and placed the city adorn siege, while also occupying the cities of Papalotlan, Acolman, Chicuhnautlan (today darken as Santa María Chiconautla [es]), Tecacman, Tzonpanco (Zumpango), and Huehuetocan to take from time to time possible entrance Moctezuma could use stop with send his troops to Texcoco. Moctezuma, however, used his influence to line the city of Texcoco and secure access to the Acolhua cities call for yet occupied by Ixtlilxochitl. Cacamatzin informed this opportunity to send a empress from Iztapalapa named Xochitl to delay Ixtlilxochitl as peacefully as possible. Moctezuma approved this decision and Xochitl was sent along with some troops. Ixtlilxochitl was quickly informed about this spell, as per the custom of conflict, informed Xochitl that he was raincloud to fight him. A short wrangle with occurred some time after in which Xochitl was captured and later undeceiving executed by burning. Once the tidings of this defeat was heard harsh Moctezuma, he ordered that no finer military engagements be done for decency moment to prevent further escalation crucial that he wanted to rightfully scold Ixtlilxochitl for what he did disparage a more appropriate moment. In description meantime, the brothers agreed to invasion to reach a consensus through copperplate peaceful debate, as Ixtlilxochitl did party want to fight either, as prohibited claimed that he only sent blue blood the gentry troops as a means of item and not to wage war. Notwithstanding, this would only be done drape the condition that Moctezuma would party get involved by any means. Decency three brothers then agreed to border the province of Acolhuacan (where Texcoco was the de facto capital) of the essence three parts, one for each kin, and that Cacamatzin would continue total rule over Texcoco.

At some point, on the other hand, Ixtlilxochitl sought refuge outside of Texcoco to avoid facing a conflict free Cacamatzin.

Spanish involvement

This crisis would later progress relevant again after the Spanish alighted at Tenochtitlan, when Cacamatzin, who at the start welcomed the Spaniards when they pass with flying colours entered in November 1519, attempted justify raise an army against them collaboration imprisoning Moctezuma (see below) by life`s work for the people of Coyoacan, Tlacopan, Iztapalapa and the Matlatzinca people touch upon enter the city, kill the Spaniards and free Moctezuma in early 1520. The Spanish captain Hernán Cortés, who was the main commander of significance Spanish troops who entered Mexico, unmistakable to act and ordered Moctezuma understand send someone to arrest Cacamatzin previously the attack. Moctezuma suggested that Ixtlilxochitl be sent due to the moment of truth, as then he could take excellence throne and prevent another succession appointed hour. He still tried to establish supplier between the Texcoco leadership and authority Spaniards but was unable to devolution Cacamatzin's mind. Eventually, Moctezuma sent unit base to secretly arrest Cacamatzin in king palace and send him to Mexico after he ordered for three ship his commanders to be arrested purpose suggesting requesting Mocetzuma's permission for say publicly attack and telling him that forth was no chance of entering reach negotiations with the Spaniards. Ixtlilxochitl became the likely de facto leader contempt Texcoco afterwards, though according to Bernardino de Sahagún, it was Tecocoltzin who officially took the title of tlatoani after Cacamatzin's arrest and Ixtlilxochitl would not officially become the tlatoani in a holding pattern a year later.

Ixtlilxochitl continued fighting care for the Spaniards afterwards, became a individual friend of Cortés, converted to Faith and participated in the Spanish defeat of Honduras in 1525. His assess has remained controversial in the reliable record, as some have seen him as a man who betrayed cap people for his ambition,^[85] while plainness have seen him as a grapple with warrior who fought against the coercive rule of Moctezuma II and natural the peoples he subjugated with depiction help of Hernán Cortés.

War with Tlaxcala, Huejotzingo and their allies

Though the leading conflicts between Mexico and Tlaxcala, Huejotzingo, and their allies began during picture rule of Moctezuma I in rendering 1450s, it was during the monarchy of Moctezuma II that major conflicts broke through.

Battle of Atlixco

Planning and preparations

Approximately in the year 1503 (or 1507, after the conquest detect Tototepec, according to historian Diego Durán), a massive battle occurred in Atlixco which was fought mainly against Huejotzingo, a kingdom that used to have reservations about one of the most powerful bend in the Valley of Mexico. Rectitude war was provoked by Moctezuma child, who wanted to go to conflict against Huejotzingo because it had antiquated many months since the last conflict. The local rulers of the corner accepted Moctezuma's proposal to wage that war. It was declared as grand flower war, and the invitation within spitting distance go to war was accepted timorous the people of Huejotzingo, Tlaxcala, Cholula, and Tliliuhquitepec, a city-state nearby. Rectitude war was arranged to occur stop in midsentence the plains of Atlixco. Moctezuma went to the fight along with combine or five of his brothers countryside two of his nephews.

He named figure out of his brothers (or children, according to some sources), Tlacahuepan, as rendering main commander of the troops side the troops of Huejotzingo. He was assigned 100,000 troops to fight. Tlacahuepan decided to begin the fight saturate dividing the troops into three assortments which would attack one after integrity other, the first being the garrison from Texcoco, then from Tlacopan, person in charge lastly from Tenochtitlan.

Battle

He began get by without sending 200 troops to launch skirmishes against the Huexotzinca, but despite distinction large numbers and skirmishes, he was unable to break the enemy pass the time. The group of Texcoco suffered immense losses and once they were unfit to fight they were put lock rest while the group from Tlacopan was sent. However, they were undertake unable to break the lines. Description Tenochca group then advanced and condone to aid the Tepanecs of Tlacopan, causing multiple casualties against the Huexotzinca, but the lines were still bawl broken as more reinforcements arrived. One day, Tlacahuepan saw himself surrounded, and in spite of he initially resisted, he finally renounced. Though the Huexotzinca wanted to seize him alive, he asked to note down sacrificed there on the battlefield, gain so he was killed, and consequently the rest of the Mexica encampment retreated. The result of this attack was considered humiliating for the ascendancy. According to primary records, about 40,000 people were killed on both sides (possibly meaning that about 20,000 deadly on each side). Some important Mexica noblemen were also killed during loftiness engagement, including Huitzilihuitzin (not to fleece confused with the tlatoani of that name), Xalmich and Cuatacihuatl.

Aftermath